L6+Attitudes


 * Definition of attitudes**

A predisposition to evaluate objects or proudcts, lasting and general; Because attitudes are stable (which distinguishes them from beliefs), they can be measured. Unstable phenomena ca also be measured, but the implications (how we can use them) of the measurement are different... Furthermore an attitude has 3 components: beliefs, affect and behavioral intentions (feeling, thinking, doing).


 * Why do attitudes exist?**

Different theories try to explain attitudes and connected topics: __Utilitarian function__ (reward and punishment), We develop some of our attitudes towards products simply on the basis of whether these products provide pleasure or pain. If a person likes the taste of a cheeseburger, that person will develop a positive attitude toward cheeseburgers. Ads that stress straightforward product benefits (e.g., you should drink Diet Coke "just for the taste of it") appeal to the utilitarian function. __Knowledge function__ (attitudes as result of a need for order, structure, meaning), Some attitudes are formed as the result of a need for order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product (e.g., "Bayer wants you to know about pain relievers") Attitudes provide meaning (knowledge) for life. The knowledge function refers to our need for a world which is consistent and relatively stable. This allows us to **predict** what is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense of control. Attitudes can hep us organise and structure our experience. Knowing a person’s attitude helps us predict their behaviour. For example, knowing that a person is religious we can predict they will go to Church. __Value expressive function__ (expressing values or self concept), Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function express the consumer's central values or self-concept. A person forms a product attitude not because of objective product benefits, but rather because of what using the product says about him or her as a person (e.g., "What sort of man reads Playboy?"). Value-expressive attitudes are highly relevant to life-style analyses, where consumers cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to express a particular social identity. __Ego defensive function__ (protecting consumers from external threats or internal feelings) Attitudes that are formed to protect the person, either from external threats or internal feelings of insecurity, perform an ego-defensive function. Products that promise to help a man project a "macho" image (e.g., Marlboro cigarettes) may be appealing to his insecurities about his masculinity. Many deodorant campaigns stress the dire, embarrassing consequences of being caught with underarm odor in public.
 * functional theory
 * there are four functions who have different purpose.
 * ABC model (emphasizes the interrelationship between knowing, feeling and doing)
 * A = affect - refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object, example: “I am scared of spiders”.
 * B = behaviour - consumers intention to do something with regard to an attitude object example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”
 * C = cognition - the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object. example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.
 * multi-attribute models (a simple response does not always tell us everything we need to know about why the consumer has certain feelings towards a products or about what marketers can do to change consumer's attitude; try to break down our attitude to a product, it emphasise cognitive elements: a set of beliefs )
 * attributes = characteristics that consumer consider when evaluating the attitude object
 * beliefs = cognitions about the specific attributes of the attitude object
 * importance weights = reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer. Altought an attitude object can be considered on a number of attributes, some will be more importante than others, and these weights are likely to differ across consumers.

While all three components of an attitude are important, their relative importance will vary depending upon a consumer's level of motivation with regard to an attitude object.
 * The "How" of attitudes:**

There are three different hierarchies, hierarchy of effects: Attitude based on cognitive information processing: beliefs [thinking] is followed by affect [feeling] resulting in behaviour [doing] attitude based on behavioral learning process: beliefs [thinking] is followed by behaviour [doing] followed by affect [feeling] (we learn after doing something) attitude based on hedonic consumtion: affect [feeling] is followed by behaviour [doing] and by beliefs [thinking]
 * Beliefs - Affects - Behavior** - __rational: high involvement__
 * Beliefs - Behavior - Affects** - __behavioristic: low involvement__
 * Affects - Behavior - Beliefs** - __experiential__

- learning by classical conditioning: Attitude Object (Ao) name is repeated - the level of exposure to the brand increases - learning by instrumental conditioning: an attribute is associated to the Ao - the consumer begins to judge the product for its characteristics (probably more rationally) - learning by complex cognitive process
 * Forming attitudes, they can occur via:**

Of course for marketers the last level is desirable (if the attitudes are favorable), but it is difficult to achieve that. This level is more common in politics, religion etc. and a few brands like Apple, Harley Davidson, etc. However marketers can more easily change attitudes on the first two levels so there are opportunities for them.
 * Levels of commitment to an attitude**
 * Lowest level: COMPLIANCE - an attitude is formed because it helps in gaining rewards or avoiding punishments from others. It's very superficial. => we comply, e.g. a person may drink Pepso because that is the brand that one shop sells and it is too much trouble to go elsewhere for a Coca-Cola
 * IDENTIFICATION - We accept the attitude more strongly. Attitudes are formed for the consumer to be similar to another person or group. => we identify with a certain group and its attitudes
 * Highest level: INTERNALISATION - Attitudes become part of consumer´s value system and it is very difficult to change them => we internalize attitudes (almost like a religion)


 * Cognitive consistency and dissonance**

__Cognitive consistency__: the consumer´s values and beliefs work together well. There are no conflicts in combining them. If necessary consumers will change their thoughts, feelings or behaviours to make them consistent with their other experiences => maintain uniformity __Cognitive dissonance__: conflicts between consumer´s attitudes and behaviors. We don´t want to get into situations where behaviour and believes do not fit together. We want to match it. The solution to this uncomfortable state depends on the weight of each element - consumers try to get out of this uncomfortable state by eliminating, adding or changing elements. The pressure to reduce dissonance is more likely to be observed in high involvement situations in which the elements are more important to the individual. Dissonance-related cognitive processes are more likely to occur or increase after the purchase – marketers should provide useful, positive info.

It involves the promotion of causes and ideas regarding facets of everyday life. Attitudes are formed, changed and perpetuated in many ways, ranging from persuasive messages, to observations of brands.
 * The USE of attitudes:**
 * Social Marketing**

- measuring behaviour is often impossible or too complex and we are interested in what leads to it - only 10% of behaviour variability can on average be explained via attitude (Wicker) - extensions of simple attitude theories • Intentions vs Behaviour - this theory aims to measure behavioural intentions, recognising that certain uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behaviour. derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior. The theory was, “born largely out of frustration with traditional attitude-behavior research, much of which found weak correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviors” __Intention = Attitude + Subjective Norm*__
 * Attitudes as predictors of behaviours:**
 * Theory of reasoned action ** (Fishbein), **Theory of planned behavior** (Ajzen).
 * Theory of Reasoned Action**

the influence of one’s social environment on his/her behavioral intentions (social pressure), uncontrollable factors, attitude towards buying – perceived consequences of the purchase of the Ao

The model was developed to predict the performance of any voluntary act. It measures behavioral intentions and thus assumes that consumers are actively anticipating and planning future behaviours.

An addition from Wikipedia: //BI = (AB)W1 + (SN) W2// BI = behavioral intention (AB) = one’s attitude toward performing the behavior W = empirically derived weights SN = one’s subjective norm related to performing the behavior

Ajzen adds a new component to TRA: "perceived behavioral control" __Intention = Attitude + Subjective norm + PBC*__
 * Theory of Planned Action**
 * an individual's perceived capability of performing the particular behaviour ("can I do it?")

You can take the example of smoking. PBC is the crucial factor because you feel you cannot stop smoking.

- measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the behaviour they are supposed to predict - outcomes beyond consumers' control - __behaviour is not always intentional__ - time-frame of the attitudes measure ≠ attitude tracking programmes - attitudes formed by direct, personal experience with an attitude object are stronger and more predictive of behaviour than those formed indirectly, such as throught advertising
 * Some obstacles to predicting behaviour**

- attitude surveys provide a snapshot at a given time - attitude trancking provides inferences about progress over time by administering an attitude survey at regular intervals - attitude tracking valuable for strategic decision making
 * Tracking attitudes**

Some basic aspects of communication specifically help to determine how and if attitudes will be created or //modified//. This objective relates to **persuasion** > an active attempt to change attitudes.
 * Changing Attitudes (excerpt from SBAH 166 - 167)**

The basic psychological principles that influence people to change their minds (or comply with a request) are:
 * Reciprocity**: People are more likely to give if they receive. Including money in a mail survey questionnaire increases response rate by 65% on avg. over surveys that come in an empty envelope.
 * Scarcity**: Items become more attractive when they are less available. One study asked people to rate the quality of chocolate biscuits and participants who got only 2 liked them better than those who got 10 of the same kind of biscuit. This helps to explain the attractiveness of "limited edition" items.
 * Authority**: Relating to who delivers the message. We tend to believe an authoritative source much more readily.
 * Consistency**: People try not to contradict themselves in terms of what they say and do about an issue.
 * Liking**: We tend to agree with those we like or admire. In one study, good looking fund raisers collected almost twice the amount as other volunteers who were not as attractive.
 * Consensus**:We often take into account what others are doing before we decide what to do. The desire to fit in with what others are doing influences our actions.

- Who? > Perceived source - How? > Message - Where? > Medium - To Whom? > Target Market s characteristics
 * Persuasive Communication has important unique characteristics. Some issues must be answered: **

The source of a message can have a big impact on how the message is received and accepted. Important source characteristics are credibility and attractiveness. To choose between these values, marketers should act towards a match between the needs and the potential rewards, as well as the type of the product. Expertise, objectivity, trustworthiness, competence and good will. Bias> knowledge (source doesn t have enough), reporting (source lacks communication skills) Perceived social value. Star Power, What is Beautiful is Good
 * Importance of the source & **** message ** (SBAH 172-181, 196-198)
 * Credibility** (expert) – performance risk
 * Attractiveness** (celebrity) – social risk

Over time, people tend to forget about the source and change their attitudes anyway. The message is kept in memory so reaction is delayed. - dissociative hypothesis: between message and source - availability-valence hypothesis: selectivity of memory
 * When the source is not so important – The Sleeper Effect**

The source of a message can have a big impact on how the message is received and accepted. Words or Pictures? How often repeated? Both sides of the argument? Open|Closed conclusion? Explicit comparison with competitors? Rational|Emotional appeal (bonding, increase involvement)? – Sexual appeal, funny, negative emotions Concrete|Vivid mood? The source Vs the message » The ELM model:
 * Importance of the source and management**
 * The Message **

- __**Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

**__

It assumes that once a consumer receives a message he or she begins to process it. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, one of the two routes to persuasion will be followed. __**» Central Route**__ : The person is likely to think actively about the arguments presented and generate cognitive responses. It is likely to involve the traditional hierarchy of effects. Beliefs are carefully formed and evaluated, and the resulting strong attitudes will be likely to guide behavior. Message factors, like the quality of arguments presented, will be important in determining attitude change. Mostly High Involvement (HI) decisions. __**» Peripheral Route**__ : The person is not motivated to think deeply about the arguments presented. The consumer is likely to use other cues (like the product's package, the attractiveness of the source) in deciding on the suitability of the message. Mostly Low Involvement (LI) decisions.

Attention to the SOURCE or the MESSAGE depends on the audience and its level of involvement. As we can see, low-involved consumers tend to pay more attention to peripheral cues and to be more sensitive to stimuli, thus being more affected by the SOURCE. In situations of high-involvement, consumers analyze arguments rationally, thus paying more attention to the MESSAGE.

The multi-attribute models - why do they use it? It is a simple model which makes it easy to calculate attitudes. Additionally it is useful to present your results of attitude measurement. But there can occur problems in managing the weights (splitting 100 or free weights?). Furthermore it forces people to judge with the created attributes. In the case that they have less information about an attribute they will probably just answer without considering.
 * Discussion:**